Generally, research is defined as, "diligent and systematic inquiry or
investigation into a subject in order to discover or revise facts, theories,
applications, etc." and as "careful investigation or study, [especially] of a
scholarly or scientific nature" (Gramercy Books 1219, Houghton Mifflin
Company 711). Research in the twenty-first century, as defined by Burke,
Katz, Handy and Polimeni, is having "the ability to access, evaluate, and use
information," knowing "how to access and search the professional authoritative
literature available from the Internet and other sources, extract and analyze
relevant information, and apply it to a specific situation" (1). The article review
below is an example of twenty-first century research.
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Educational Equality
Present-day public school classrooms are more likely to have a diverse
group of students. The effect of these diversities on the education of the
students in public schools has produced a great deal of research and literature
addressing these issues in an effort to ensure equal quality in the education of
all children regardless of their backgrounds (Van Laar and Sidanius 235). One
such article, written by Richard J. Murnane (who is the Thompson Professor
of Education and Society at the Harvard Graduate School of Education)
"Improving the Education of Children Living in Poverty," focuses on students
who are living in poverty and describes three initiatives that could improve the
education of children living in poverty and their chances of escaping poverty
(Murnane 161).
Urban public school classrooms, as a reflection of urban society, are more
likely to have included within its diverse group of students a number of
students from low income families. In fact, approximately twelve million
children, 16.7 percent of the United States population, are living in poverty
and, because "child poverty is linked with other negative outcomes," students
from low income families statistically have lower levels of academic and
intellectual achievement and tend to have lower grades, test scores, diploma
levels and the likelihood of school completion compared to those students
from higher income level families (Kopetz, Lease and Warren-Kring 110;
Woodlee 2; Van Laar and Sidanius 235). Murnane points out that students
who are living in poverty have a tendency to be concentrated into low-
performing schools that are staffed by ill-equipped teachers and as a result,
often leave school without a high school diploma or the skills they need to earn
a decent living (162).
Five theories have been presented to explain why students who live in
poverty have decreased chances of student success: 1) Low income families
have fewer resources which prevents their children from academic
achievement; 2) Low income families may not be able to devote enough time
to help with their child's learning; 3) Students from low income families may be
more prone to psychological problems; 4) Students from low income families
have very little motivation to succeed in school; and 5) Students from low
income families have poor expectations. Murnane addresses these theories by
suggesting that the education for children living in poverty should be improved
by: 1) Clearly defining the skills and knowledge that students need to master
for each grade level; 2) Providing schools that are run by principals "who
know how to recruit and support effective teachers" by providing them with
the proper tools needed to educate the students; 3) Providing schools that
attract and support skilled and experienced teachers who are committed to
working to continuously improve instruction over an extended period of time;
4) Providing schools with staff members who will monitor the learning of each
students and intervene at the first indication that traditional pedagogies are not
being effective or when a students is not progressing; and 5) Adjusting the
length of the school days and the school year so that students have sufficient
time to acquire critical skills if they need the extra time (183). Unfortunately,
most students who live in poverty do not attend schools of this type
(Murnane163).
The primary reason NCLBA was supported by some civil rights groups
was because its one strength is that it brings attention to the academic skills of
the groups that have historically not been well served by the American public
education system: children of color, children whose first language is not
English, children with disabilities, and children from low income families
(Murnane 164-165). On the other hand, several provisions of NCLBA have
created some "perverse incentives" for the states and their educators
(Murnane 165). First, the adequately yearly progress requirements (AYP) are
beyond the reach of even those states that have made progress in improving
student test scores (Murnane 165). Murnane points out that:
North Carolina, for example, made the greatest gain between 1990
and 2000 in the share of students who score proficient or above on
the eighth-grade [National Assessment of Educational Progress
(NAEP)] mathematics test. If North Carolina were able to sustain this
top-ranking rate of progress, almost 60 percent of its eighth graders
would earn scores of proficient or above by 2014-a remarkable
accomplishment, but well short of the required 100 percent. (165)
This is because NCLBA accountability system has only two categories:
schools that are able to meet AYP goals and schools that fail to do so
(Murnane 165).
Another perverse incentive is the fact that each state is permitted to choose
its tests and minimum test scores (Murnane 165). According to Murnane, this
level of freedom combined with the pressure to meet the requirements for
AYP encourages states "to make their test relatively undemanding and to set
low minimum scores" (165). NCLBA's third perverse incentive is that even
though the law requires that states include school graduation rates when setting
their AYP goals for high schools, NCLBA does not spell out how the states
should include school graduation rates (Murnane 165). Murnane points out
that, "the U.S. Department of Education has allowed states to measure
graduation rates in a variety of ways and to set their own goals for improving
those rates" and that "there is no requirement that goals be met for subgroups
of students, defined by race and poverty" (165). The result of this is that
school district's high school graduation rates, one of the most important factors
in assessing its success in educating students, plays almost no part in NCLB
accountability system (Murnane 165).
Murnane proposes three initiatives that could improve the education of
children living in poverty and their chances of escaping poverty: 1) Congress
needs to improve NCLBA accountability by amending NCLBA to develop
meaningful goals school district high school graduation rates, to make
performance goals more attainable, and to emphasize the growth of student
skills rather than whether students are able to meet AYP goals; 2) Congress
should strengthen the state incentives to improve education for low income
students; and 3) Congress needs to increase the capacity of school districts to
educate low income students and the capacity of the states to increase the
performance levels of their failing school districts (161).
I believe that the article by Murnane shows the need for changes in
NCLBA and the need for the teachers and staff in public schools to possess a
greater level of objectivity in an effort to be both sensitive to and tolerant of the
issues of students from low income families. For my own part, I do not believe
myself to be qualified to suggest that NCLBA be changed however; because I
do not believe that the educational system is better off than it was before
NCLBA, I find myself in agreement with the Murnane's proposals. The
Federal government, state school districts, and teachers should be able to
provide all students educational equality.
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Today, basic computer operation skills are no longer sufficient; information
literacy, "the ability to 'recognize when information is needed and have the
ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information,'" and
research literacy, having the ability "to think critically when accessing,
analyzing, and using information," are now required skills for modern day
research (qtd. in MacDonald 1, Burke et al. 67).
To assist you with your understanding and know-how of twenty-first
century research skills, Research and the Writing Process: An On-line Tutorial
will take you through the following areas of the writing process: 1) The Writing
Process; 2) What is a Primary Source; 3) What is a Secondary Source; 4)
What is Plagiarism; and 5) How important is Format. There is also a page with
a list of recommended journal articles and books that may help you with any
research projects. The References, Bibliography, Works Cited and Picture
Sources page has a list of the sources used for this site.
I am sure that Research and the Writing Process: An On-line Tutorial will
be able to provide you with any assistance with your writing process and
research that you may need and some assistance you may not expect.
Works Cited
Burke, Jacqueline A., et al. "Research Skills: A Fundamental Asset for
Accountants." The CPA Journal Online Jan. 2008. 24 Jan. 2008. Web.
Gramercy Books. Webster's encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the
English Language. New York/Avenel, New Jersey: Random House, 1989.
Print.
Houghton Mifflin Company. The American Heritage Dictionary. 4th ed. New
York: Bantam Dell, 2001. Print.
Kopetz, Patricia B., Lease, Anthony J., and Warren-Kring, Bonnie Z.
Comprehensive Urban Education. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc, 2006.
Print.
MacDonald, Mary. Introduction to Information Literacy. Course home page.
Spring 2004. Dept. of English, University of Rhode Island. 24 Jan. 2008.
Web.
Murnane, R. Improving the Education of Children Living in Poverty. The
Future of Children 17 2007: 161-182. Web.
Van Laar, Colette, and Sidanius, Jim. "Social Status and the Academic
Achievement Gap: A Social Dominance Perspective." Social Psychology
of Education Apr. 2001: 235-258. Print.
Woodlee, Y. "One-third of Children in Poverty, Report Says." The
Washington Post 18 January 2008. 4 Feb. 2009. Web.
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